Ladder of Inference

Chris Argyris and Peter Senge's model of how people move from observable data to action through a series of increasingly abstract inferences: select data → add meaning → make assumptions → draw conclusions → adopt beliefs → take action. Each rung amplifies error. The model reveals why people observing the same situation reach different conclusions—they're selecting different data and adding different meanings. Making the ladder explicit enables productive disagreement.

When to use it

When dealing with complex, interconnected problems; when interventions keep failing; when small changes produce disproportionate effects; when predicting system behavior.

How it can help

Enables seeing the structural patterns beneath surface-level events. Helps leaders understand why interventions often fail and where to find genuine leverage for change.